Sen. Ed Charbonneau's bill would make Indiana the sixth state to repeal its COPA law.

This article was published on Wednesday, January 8, 2024 in KFF Health News.

By Samantha Liss

On the heels of a scuttled hospital merger between rivals in Terre Haute, Indiana, a state senator introduced a bill that would forbid similar mergers in the future.

Last year, nonprofit Union Health tried to acquire the only other acute care hospital in Vigo County by leveraging a state law it helped create that allows hospital monopolies. Now, Sen. Ed Charbonneau, a key architect of the 2021 law, which allows what is known as a "Certificate of Public Advantage," or COPA, wants to repeal it.

"I didn't think I was doing 100% the right thing last time," the Republican, who chairs the Senate health committee, said of co-authoring Indiana's 2021 COPA law. "I do think I am this time."

Indiana is one of 19 states that have COPA laws, which allow hospital mergers that the Federal Trade Commission otherwise considers illegal because they reduce competition and often create monopolies.

In exchange for allowing these deals, the merging hospitals typically agree to meet a number of conditions imposed by the state to mitigate the harms of a monopoly. But health care economists and the FTC have said that state oversight cannot replace competition and that these mergers ultimately harm patients.

The public and the FTC pressured Indiana health regulators to block Union's merger with its rival, Terre Haute Regional Hospital. Just days before a December deadline for the state to issue a decision on whether to approve the deal, Union Health and Terre Haute Regional Hospital pulled their application.

Union Health and Tennessee-based HCA Healthcare, which owns Terre Haute Regional, declined to answer questions about what prompted the decision to scuttle the deal. In a November statement, Union said it planned to submit a new application.

In 2021, Union Health leaders were instrumental in the passage of Indiana's COPA law. They supplied draft language for the bill, according to legislative testimony, and Union Health CEO Steve Holman testified before lawmakers that the merger would improve Vigo County's poor public health rankings.

But Charbonneau's bill would prevent such deals and make Indiana the sixth state to repeal its COPA law.

In 2023, Maine ended its COPA after heeding warnings from the FTC about the harmful effects of such mergers. Minnesota, Montana, North Carolina, and North Dakota have also repealed such laws.

In comments to Indiana regulators, the FTC referenced KFF Health News' reporting on Ballad Health, a 20-hospital monopoly in Tennessee and Virginia, as a cautionary tale against such mergers.

COPAs, such as the one under which Ballad operates, "have proven unwieldy," are "difficult to manage," and "have failed to protect local communities from the harmful effects of anticompetitive hospital mergers," the FTC said in its comments on the proposed Union-Regional merger.

Ballad declined to respond to KFF Health News inquiries regarding the FTC's comments.

Since Ballad launched in 2018 and became the nation's largest state-approved hospital monopoly, it has not lived up to some of its promises, KFF Health News has reported. It has fallen short of quality and charity care goals, according to annual reports from Ballad and the Tennessee Department of Health. After years of problems and complaints from patients, the state is now trying to hold Ballad more accountable for its quality of care.

In a November interview with KFF Health News, Ballad Health CEO Alan Levine attributed the quality-of-care slump to covid-19 and workforce challenges. He said these issues are unrelated to the COPA merger and the monopoly it created.

In Indiana, Republican Gov.-elect Mike Braun has said tackling health care issues will be a top policy priority. Braun's policy agenda to "protect Hoosiers from consolidation" calls for rooting out regulations that "promote consolidation" and pose a "barrier" to competition.

Republicans control the state legislature. Charbonneau, a high-ranking senator, has co-authored several bills to combat consolidation, including through restricting noncompete agreements for primary care physicians and requiring hospitals and other health care businesses to notify Indiana's attorney general of pending mergers and acquisitions.

If Charbonneau's bill to repeal Indiana's COPA law passes during the legislative session beginning Jan. 8, it may prevent Union from acquiring Regional. Union would need to submit a new application and get it approved before Charbonneau's bill would take effect July 1. Both Union and HCA declined to comment on the proposed bill and their future application plans.

Samantha Liss: sliss@kff.org, @samanthann

Prosthetic coverage by private health plans varies tremendously.

This article was published on Monday, January 6, 2025 in KFF Health News.

By Michelle Andrews

When Michael Adams was researching health insurance options in 2023, he had one very specific requirement: coverage for prosthetic limbs.

Adams, 51, lost his right leg to cancer 40 years ago, and he has worn out more legs than he can count. He picked a gold plan on the Colorado health insurance marketplace that covered prosthetics, including microprocessor-controlled knees like the one he has used for many years. That function adds stability and helps prevent falls.

But when his leg needed replacing last January after about five years of everyday use, his new marketplace health plan wouldn't authorize it. The roughly $50,000 leg with the electronically controlled knee wasn't medically necessary, the insurer said, even though Colorado law leaves that determination up to the patient's doctor, and his has prescribed a version of that leg for many years, starting when he had employer-sponsored coverage.

"The electronic prosthetic knee is life-changing," said Adams, who lives in Lafayette, Colorado, with his wife and two kids. Without it, "it would be like going back to having a wooden leg like I did when I was a kid." The microprocessor in the knee responds to different surfaces and inclines, stiffening up if it detects movement that indicates its user is falling.

People who need surgery to replace a joint typically don't encounter similar coverage roadblocks. In 2021, 1.5 million knee or hip joint replacements were performed in United States hospitals and hospital-owned ambulatory facilities, according to the federal Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, or AHRQ. The median price for a total hip or knee replacement without complications at top orthopedic hospitals was just over $68,000 in 2020, according to one analysis, though health plans often negotiate lower rates.

To people in the amputee community, the coverage disparity amounts to discrimination.

"Insurance covers a knee replacement if it's covered with skin, but if it's covered with plastic, it's not going to cover it," said Jeffrey Cain, a family physician and former chair of the board of the Amputee Coalition, an advocacy group. Cain wears two prosthetic legs, having lost his after an airplane accident nearly 30 years ago.

AHIP, a trade group for health plans, said health plans generally provide coverage when the prosthetic is determined to be medically necessary, such as to replace a body part or function for walking and day-to-day activity. In practice, though, prosthetic coverage by private health plans varies tremendously, said Ashlie White, chief strategy and programs officer at the Amputee Coalition. Even though coverage for basic prostheses may be included in a plan, "often insurance companies will put caps on the devices and restrictions on the types of devices approved," White said.

An estimated 2.3 million people are living with limb loss in the U.S., according to an analysis by Avalere, a health care consulting company. That number is expected to as much as double in coming years as people age and a growing number lose limbs to diabetes, trauma, and other medical problems.

Fewer than half of people with limb loss have been prescribed a prosthesis, according to a report by the AHRQ. Plans may deny coverage for prosthetic limbs by claiming they aren't medically necessary or are experimental devices, even though microprocessor-controlled knees like Adams' have been in use for decades.

Cain was instrumental in getting passed a 2000 Colorado law that requires insurers to cover prosthetic arms and legs at parity with Medicare, which requires coverage with a 20% coinsurance payment. Since that measure was enacted, about half of states have passed "insurance fairness" laws that require prosthetic coverage on par with other covered medical services in a plan or laws that require coverage of prostheses that enable people to do sports. But these laws apply only to plans regulated by the state. Over half of people with private coverage are in plans not governed by state law.

The Medicare program's 80% coverage of prosthetic limbs mirrors its coverage for other services. Still, an October report by the Government Accountability Office found that only 30% of beneficiaries who lost a limb in 2016 received a prosthesis in the following three years.

Cost is a factor for many people.

"No matter your coverage, most people have to pay something on that device," White said. As a result, "many people will be on a payment plan for their device," she said. Some may take out loans.

The federal Consumer Financial Protection Bureau has proposed a rule that would prohibit lenders from repossessing medical devices such as wheelchairs and prosthetic limbs if people can't repay their loans.

"It is a replacement limb," said White, whose organization has heard of several cases in which lenders have repossessed wheelchairs or prostheses. Repossession is "literally a punishment to the individual."

Adams ultimately owed a coinsurance payment of about $4,000 for his new leg, which reflected his portion of the insurer's negotiated rate for the knee and foot portion of the leg but did not include the costly part that fits around his stump, which didn't need replacing. The insurer approved the prosthetic leg on appeal, claiming it had made an administrative error, Adams said.

"We're fortunate that we're able to afford that 20%," said Adams, who is a self-employed leadership consultant.

Leah Kaplan doesn't have that financial flexibility. Born without a left hand, she did not have a prosthetic limb until a few years ago.

Growing up, "I didn't want more reasons to be stared at," said Kaplan, 32, of her decision not to use a prosthesis. A few years ago, the cycling enthusiast got a prosthetic hand specially designed for use with her bike. That device was covered under the health plan she has through her county government job in Spokane, Washington, helping developmentally disabled people transition from school to work.

But when she tried to get approval for a prosthetic hand to use for everyday activities, her health plan turned her down. The myoelectric hand she requested would respond to electrical impulses in her arm that would move the hand to perform certain actions. Without insurance coverage, the hand would cost her just over $46,000, which she said she can't afford.

Working with her doctor, she has appealed the decision to her insurer and been denied three times. Kaplan said she's still not sure exactly what the rationale is, except that the insurer has questioned the medical necessity of the prosthetic hand. The next step is to file an appeal with an independent review organization certified by the state insurance commissioner's office.

A prosthetic hand is not a luxury device, Kaplan said. The prosthetic clinic has ordered the hand and made the customized socket that will fit around the end of her arm. But until insurance coverage is sorted out, she can't use it.

At this point she feels defeated. "I've been waiting for this for so long," Kaplan said.

Michelle Andrews: andrews.khn@gmail.com, @mandrews110

Employers are using transparency data to try to slow growth of their healthcare costs.

This article was published on Friday, December 20, 2025 in KFF Health News.

By Julie Appleby

It seems simple: Require hospitals and insurers to post their negotiated prices for most healthcare services and — bingo — competition follows, yielding lower costs for consumers.

But nearly four years after the first Trump administration's regulations forced hospitals to post massive amounts of pricing information online, the effect on patients' costs is unclear. And while President Joe Biden added requirements to make pricing information more user-friendly, Donald Trump's imminent return to the White House has raised questions about what's next, even though posting prices is an area of rare bipartisan agreement.

The uncertainty of what might happen next led some proponents to lobby Congress to include hospital and insurer price transparency in must-pass legislation before Trump takes office. That would turn both his and Biden's regulations into law, making them less susceptible to being weakened or repealed by a future administration. But that effort failed.

The legislative step could also help protect against legal challenges in the wake of a Supreme Court decision that limited government agencies' regulatory authority.

Employers are using transparency data to try to slow growth of their healthcare costs, and "the last thing you want to do is start over," said James Gelfand, president and CEO of the ERISA Industry Committee, which represents large employers who finance their own health plans. His group is among the organizations pressing Congress to act.

"Congress' failure to act is deeply disappointing, but employers and other advocates will redouble our efforts," Gelfand said. "This will get done."

While there are reports that many hospitals are not fully complying, federal regulators have sent thousands of warning letters to hospitals and fined just over a dozen.

The transparency rules require hospitals to list the prices they accept from all insurers for thousands of items and services, from stitches to delivery room costs to X-rays. For consumers, hospitals must also provide a list of 300 "shoppable" services, including bundled prices accepted for common services such as having a baby or getting a hip replacement. Insurers in July 2022 were similarly required to list their negotiated prices, not only for care at hospitals, but also surgery centers, imaging facilities, laboratories, and doctors' offices.

It's a massive and often confusing amount of data that has drawn interest from researchers and commercial outlets like Turquoise Health, which has sought to organize the information to better help ordinary consumers shopping for medical services or employers overseeing workers' health plans.

The data shows a huge variation in prices, both in what hospitals charge and what insurers pay, for the same services. But the result of making those prices public is so far hard to quantify.

A recent study by Turquoise looked at negotiated rates in the nation's 10 largest metro areas for a set of common healthcare services. It found that rates in the top quarter tier — the most expensive category — declined by 6.3% from December 2021 to June 2024, during the time the transparency rules were in place. But negotiated rates for the lowest-cost tier of services rose by 3.4%.

That may indicate hospitals and insurers — who can now see what rivals are charging and paying — have either cut prices or demanded better rates, at least for the costliest services.

Even so, Gerard Anderson, who oversees research into the data as a professor at the Bloomberg School of Public Health at Johns Hopkins University, said the changes Turquoise noted were small and are not reflective of what his team has seen in their own studies.

"So far we have not detected any impact of this data on behavior, of where insurers decide to go or what hospitals do to change prices once they realize what others are charging," Anderson said.

Some health policy experts think it's unlikely the incoming Trump administration would reverse its prior commitment to price transparency.

"I don't see a world where he tanks his own regulations," said Joe Wisniewski, an associate vice president at Turquoise Health. "There is also so much broad bipartisan support on the Hill."

The current price-posting rules began with requirements in the Affordable Care Act, which the initial Trump administration more fully defined. The hospital industry failed in a legal challenge to block those rules, and the Trump-era requirements became effective in January 2021.

But even after the Biden administration made the data more user-friendly, it's still not very helpful to consumers, Anderson said.

"This data is not telling them the price they will pay. It's telling them the average price people paid last month or last quarter for a similar type of service," he said.

More useful, Anderson and other experts say, are requirements in the price transparency rules that demand insurers offer online calculators for hundreds of nonemergency services. The detailed cost estimates must take into account how much patients have paid toward annual deductibles.

For uninsured consumers or others who don't have access to online calculators, it remains difficult to piece together how much a service might cost from the information hospitals post online. For one thing, not every hospital has posted its negotiated rates.

The Department of Health and Human Services' inspector general said in November an audit of 100 hospitals found that 63 complied with the price transparency rule, while the rest failed to meet one or more requirements.

The advocacy group Patient Rights Advocate, which looked at a sample of 2,000 hospitals, says that only 21% were fully compliant, although it used broader measures for compliance than the inspector general.

"By keeping their prices hidden, hospitals continue to block American consumers from their right to compare prices and protect themselves from overcharges," said Cynthia Fisher, founder and chairman of the group, which has called for stricter rules and enforcement.

Julie Appleby: jappleby@kff.org, @Julie_appleby

Experts describe the narrow escape from Unicoi County Hospital as a cautionary tale.

This article was published on Monday, December 16, 2024 in KFF Health News.

By Lauren Sausser and Holly K. Hacker

ERWIN, Tenn. — April Boyd texted her husband before she boarded the helicopter.

"So, I don't want to be dramatic," she wrote on Sept. 27, "but we are gonna fly and rescue patients from the rooftop of Unicoi hospital."

Earlier that day, Hurricane Helene roared into the Southern Appalachian Mountains after moving north through Florida and Georgia. The storm prompted a deadly flash flood that tore through Unicoi County in eastern Tennessee, trapping dozens of people on the rooftop of the county hospital.

The fast-moving floodwaters had made earlier rescue attempts by ambulance and boat impossible. Trees, trailers, buildings, caskets, and cars swept past the hospital in murky, brown rapids that overwhelmed the one-story structure with 12 feet of water on all sides.

No one knew how long the hospital's frame would hold or if the rising water would breach the top of the 20-foot-tall building. Little more than a mile downstream, six people at a plastics plant in Erwin's industrial park died in the flood.

"I do not feel good about this," Boyd, a flight nurse for Ballad Health, texted her husband at 1:41 p.m., just before takeoff.

She wrote that she loved him. "If anything goes wrong," she wanted him to tell her daughters "how much I love them," too.

Her fears were well-founded.

In 2018, Unicoi County Hospital relocated from higher ground in the heart of Erwin to the southern edge of town, between Interstate 26 and the Nolichucky River. The new hospital was built in a known flood plain, but the facility wasn't designed to accommodate helicopter landings on its roof. Boyd and her team weren't sure the roof could bear the weight of their 7,200-pound Eurocopter in good weather, let alone during a flash flood.

"I had a horrible feeling about it," she said.

By many accounts, the evacuation of 70 people, including 11 patients, by helicopter that day was a stunning success. The hospital was destroyed, but no one died. No one was even physically injured by the ordeal.

Yet, earth scientists, emergency management officials, and others who spoke to KFF Health News describe the narrow escape from Unicoi County Hospital as a cautionary tale. As climate change forces healthcare leaders and public officials to prepare for severe storms in landlocked parts of the country — where residents haven't historically paid much attention to hurricane warnings — they must be strategic about both the infrastructure design and the locations selected for new projects, like hospitals.

The Biden administration finalized a rule this year designed to make the construction of such projects that receive funding from the Federal Emergency Management Agency more resilient to flooding. But a review by KFF Health News identified about 20 other Tennessee hospitals already built in, or near, flood plains.

Patrick Sheehan, director of the Tennessee Emergency Management Agency, said past weather patterns can lull people into a false sense of security. But, he added, "past is not always prologue. We're going to experience novel, new ways of having disasters."

Historically, the Southern Appalachian Mountains have been the place "where hurricanes go to die," said Ryan Thigpen, an earth and environmental sciences professor at the University of Kentucky whose research focuses on flooding in the region. But as the Gulf of Mexico becomes warmer and storms, like Helene, that move northward into the mountains carry more moisture, weather events will become more severe.

"It's apocalyptic," said Thigpen, of the damage in Erwin. "The next storm may come before they are finished recovering from this. And that's kind of scary."

Hospitals in Flood Plains

All week, Michelle Matson had been worried about Unicoi County Hospital in the oncoming storm.

As a district coordinator for the Tennessee Emergency Management Agency, Matson works with local officials to plan for worst-case scenarios.

Leading up to Hurricane Helene, she'd been in regular communication with the county's emergency management director. The hospital's vulnerability next to the river kept coming up.

"That was the only place we were worried about," Matson said.

But concern over the hospital's location wasn't new.

In November 2013, Unicoi County Memorial Hospital, which opened in 1953, was acquired by Mountain States Health Alliance on the condition that Mountain States would construct a hospital in Erwin to replace the old one.

Two years later, Mountain States purchased a 45-acre tract of land next to a bend in the Nolichucky River, just off Interstate 26. A hospital system press release at the time explained that due diligence had been conducted to ensure, among other things, that the hospital building would not be in a flood plain. It also presented the location as desirable because it was near the interstate and the landscape would provide "a healing environment by taking advantage of the natural beauty of Unicoi County, with the river running along the east side of the property."

Dating back decades, though, flood maps published by FEMA put the entire property in a flood plain. The building itself was in a 500-year flood plain (meaning a 0.2% chance of flooding in any given year), while the only road on and off the property was in a 100-year flood plain (meaning a 1% annual risk).

But it wasn't only FEMA maps that forecast this possibility. In 2001, a report published by Unicoi County marked this land as being in a "flood hazard" area. The report warned of "considerable pressure" to develop flood hazard areas across the county "due to population increase and the need for vacant land."

The same report acknowledged a history of destructive flooding in the county and the risks it faced being situated along "three major streams," including the Nolichucky River, which flows northward out of the Blue Ridge Mountains of western North Carolina straight through Erwin.

"If you start looking at the river's history, there are a number of these notable flood events, and quite a few in the 20th century. They just did not reach this magnitude," said Philip Prince, a geologist with Appalachian Landslide Consultants. His YouTube videos about mountain flooding during Helene have been viewed hundreds of thousands of times. "People should have been expecting more than they did. But again, we have not seen anything like this."

Matthew Rice, a former Unicoi County commissioner, served as chair of the Hospital Visioning Committee for the new hospital in 2015. He said some committee members raised questions during the planning process about the location, but he conceded there weren't many large, flat places to build a hospital in Erwin.

Amid a wave of rural hospital closures across the United States, Erwin residents celebrated when the new hospital opened in 2018. One lawmaker told the Johnson City Press it was "the most modern facility on the planet."

Alan Levine was CEO of Mountain States Health Alliance during that time and later became the head of Ballad Health, when Mountain States merged with a competing hospital system in 2018 to form the largest state-sanctioned hospital monopoly in the country.

Levine said Mountain States was aware the property carried flood risk but noted that the hospital system added levees to protect the building from river flooding at the recommendation of outside consultants. One levee already existed along the river's edge. And the hospital itself was deliberately constructed on a high point of the land, at the same elevation as the interstate, Levine said.

"I feel like everything we did when we built it was done the right way," said Levine, a former healthcare leader in Louisiana and Florida.

Even so, Matson, who lives in Kingsport, about 45 minutes northwest of Erwin, said some residents were quietly critical of the new hospital's location.

"We all thought that it was a stupid idea to build a hospital in a flood plain. It's like, who does that?" Matson said. She said her opinion doesn't represent an official position of the Tennessee Emergency Management Agency.

But Unicoi isn't the only Tennessee hospital built in a flood plain. Eight others across the state were built in moderate- or high-risk flood zones, and a dozen other hospitals are situated just outside them, KFF Health News found.

The hospitals at risk span the length of the state, from Memphis on the western edge to Knoxville in the east, and include big-city general hospitals, smaller rural hospitals, and behavioral health facilities.

Some of the hospitals are decades old. Parkridge East Hospital in Chattanooga, for example, was built in the 1970s inside a high-risk flood zone. Others are more recent — like Creekside Behavioral Health in Kingsport. That building, which opened in 2018, straddles high- and moderate-risk flood zones.

Then there are facilities like Pinewood Springs in Columbia. The 60-bed mental health facility, which opened in 2020, is in a low-risk area, but the main road leading in and out of the hospital lies in a high-risk flood area.

To identify these hospitals, KFF Health News looked for licensed facilities in or near areas that, according to FEMA, have either a high flood risk (with a 1-in-100 chance of flooding in any given year) or moderate risk (a 1-in-500 chance in any given year).

But FEMA's maps likely underestimate the true flood risk, researchers and government watchdogs agree, because they're largely outdated and don't account for current or future conditions, including more frequent and more intense storms and flooding associated with climate change.

Those maps are updated on an ongoing but slow and piecemeal basis. Meanwhile, the federal regulation finalized this year to expand areas considered at risk for current and future flooding also sets more stringent building standards for critical infrastructure projects located in 100-year flood plains and funded by federal taxpayers.

The rule became effective on Sept. 9, less than three weeks before Hurricane Helene ravaged the Southern Appalachians, but it is unclear whether the incoming Trump administration will preserve it.

After he took office in 2017, President Donald Trump revoked federal flood protection standards set up under the Obama administration. Karoline Leavitt, a spokesperson for the incoming Trump administration, did not respond to emailed questions for this article.

An ‘Antiquated and Broken' System

On Sept. 24, three days before the hospital evacuation, the National Hurricane Center issued the first of several warnings predicting significant river flooding and landslides in the Southern Appalachians. Two days before the flood in Erwin, a satellite office of the National Weather Service in Morristown, Tennessee, predicted "life-threatening flash flooding" near the Tennessee-North Carolina state line.

The warnings kept coming. The National Weather Service in upstate South Carolina forecast on Sept. 26, a Thursday, that Helene would amount to one of the region's most significant weather events "in the modern era."

"I don't think people knew what that meant," said Prince, the geologist. "We just didn't have a precedent."

Ballad Health didn't anticipate that Unicoi would flood during the storm, Levine said, even though a hazard vulnerability assessment conducted annually for the hospital identifies external flooding as the second-highest risk facing Unicoi County Hospital, behind only a civil disturbance. The same 2024 assessment rated the hospital's preparedness for a flood as a "3" or "low," the worst possible score.

But a document outlining the hospital's emergency alert procedures makes no mention of flood risk. If anything, hospital leaders said they were anticipating a surge of patients during Hurricane Helene if Erwin and the surrounding area experienced widespread power outages.

"There was no conversation I had with anybody, anywhere about the risk of flooding before Friday morning," Levine said.

The day before, Jennifer Harrah, the hospital's administrator, had called a meeting to discuss the storm. Sean Ochsenbein, an emergency medicine physician and the hospital's chief medical officer, recalled that the group gathered "just to kind of circle the wagons, make sure everybody was on the same page."

Later that day, Harrah spoke to Unicoi County's emergency management director. But "let me be very clear," Ochsenbein said. "Nobody gave us — as Ballad or our hospital — any kind of indication that we would have floodwaters."

And yet little more than 24 hours after their planning meeting, both Harrah and Ochsenbein were stranded on the hospital roof, literally praying to God for their rescue.

"I called my husband, and I called my sons," Harrah said. "I told them that I loved them."

Dozens of hospital patients, staffers, and first responders were rescued by helicopter after floodwaters from the nearby river overwhelmed the building.(Maddy Alewine for KFF Health News)

One reason the impact of the storm seemed to catch people off guard was a disconnect between the strong warnings issued by the federal agencies and the low expectations that many people in the region, including Ballad Health leaders, had of the potential flood risk.

It was sunny outside when people were evacuated from the hospital roof, Thigpen pointed out. It had rained about 5 inches in Erwin over several days, but that was nothing compared with places in the North Carolina mountains that received more than 20 inches over the same period. Rainfall at those higher altitudes eventually drained into the rivers and streams that ultimately destroyed places like Erwin.

But residents in Unicoi County had no clue what was coming their way, Thigpen said, because there weren't river gauges upstream to sound alarms about dangerous water levels.

"I think that our warning systems are antiquated and broken," he said. "These people in Erwin have seen floods — and a lot of big floods — and it's never been anywhere close to this."

Tennessee state climatologist Andrew Joyner is one of several experts now calling for more river gauges to monitor water levels and a network of weather stations in every county designed to collect live precipitation data.

Thirty-eight states already operate similar systems, he said, estimating that setting up and staffing weather stations across Tennessee would cost less than $4 million in the first year.

But the state has failed to act before. Following a catastrophic flood in Waverly, Tennessee, that killed 20 people and destroyed hundreds of homes and businesses in 2021, the Tennessee General Assembly denied a $200 million request to relocate 14 public schools across the state that had been deemed vulnerable to future flooding.

‘Might Not Make It Back'

On the morning of the flood, Matson had stood with the county's emergency management director behind Unicoi County Hospital and watched the rising river. "We both had this, like, sick feeling in our stomach that said we've got to evacuate," she remembered. "I said to him, worse comes to worst, we evacuate, nothing happens. Just blame it on me."

They made the call to start moving patients out of the hospital just before 9:45 a.m. Less than 30 minutes later, the river had breached its banks, cutting a new channel in front of the hospital and eliminating access to the only road on or off the property.

When an ambulance evacuation became untenable, the Tennessee Emergency Management Agency called in swift-water teams, specially designed to rescue people in turbulent waters. But the flash flood had become so violent and the river was so full of debris that the boats couldn't safely carry patients away. Meanwhile, dangerous wind conditions prevented helicopters located to the east or west from immediately flying that morning to rescue everyone by air.

"To be honest, I really thought we may not make it back" from the rescue mission, Boyd, the flight nurse, said.

When the wind started to die down that afternoon, Virginia State Police deployed two helicopters to rescue patients. Eventually, three Black Hawk helicopters from the Tennessee National Guard assisted in the effort. Pilots were required to make multiple round trips between the hospital and the local high school to evacuate four or five people at a time who had been stranded by the flood. Some patients stranded in boats near the hospital were hoisted into helicopters, while those who were stranded on the roof were either carried onto the aircraft or climbed aboard while the helicopters lightly touched down on their skids.

As the afternoon wore on and the evacuation was nearing its completion, pilot Jeff Bush with the Virginia State Police said he learned that the hospital building was weakening. They weren't sure how much longer it would hold.

"It was intense," he said. "The fact that the building is still standing is, I think, kind of amazing."

Ballad Health evacuated two other hospitals and one nursing home by ambulance within 24 hours of the flood in Erwin, but none of those sustained damage. Meanwhile, what's left of Unicoi County Hospital stands next to the Nolichucky in a field of mud and displaced river rocks.

For now, Ballad Health has opened a temporary urgent care center and plans to establish an emergency department at the site of the former Unicoi County Memorial Hospital in downtown Erwin.

Levine said Ballad Health will eventually rebuild a full-service hospital, but he estimated the project would cost $50 million, roughly twice as much as it did in 2018. It remains unclear where it would be built.

Probably not in a flood plain, Levine said. "I would avoid it if I could."

Lauren Sausser: lsausser@kff.org, @laurenmsausser

Holly K. Hacker: hhacker@kff.org, @hollyhacker